Produção internacional, condições de trabalho e ativismo institucional: ensaio sobre a indústria do vestuário
Palavras-chave:
Indústria do vestuário, Produção internacional, Sindicatos, ONGs, Defesa dos direitos e das condições de trabalhoResumo
A produção internacional é um aspecto maior da globalização. A indústria do vestuário tem destaque nesses termos, exibindo terceirização influenciada por bolsões de baixos salários e leis trabalhistas frouxas, o que geralmente significa forte degradação do trabalho. Esse é o contexto deste estudo, que discute o combate à violação dos direitos dos trabalhadores nessa indústria. Sindicatos e ONGs são protagonistas, utilizando o marketing anticorporativo entre seus principais instrumentos. Ao denunciarem práticas degradantes, afetam a imagem e as vendas das empresas e pressionam pela adoção de códigos de conduta entre os fornecedores. Mas as dificuldades são grandes, e os efeitos, diferenciados.
Referências
ANNER, M.; EVANS, P. Building bridges across a double divide: alliances between US and Latin American labor and NGOs. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p. 33-50.
BAIR, J. Global capitalism and commodity chains: looking back, going forward. Competition & Change, v. 9, n. 2, p. 153-180, June 2005.
BAIR, J.; GEREFFI, G. Better work in Central America: assessing the opportunities for upgrading in Nicaragua’s apparel sector. The University of Manchester, Research Programme “Capturing the Gains”, Feb. 2013. (Working Paper 17). Obtido em: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2237473 Acesso em: 15/7/2014.
BAGCI, C. Historical evolution of NGOs: NGO proliferation in the Post-Cold War era. Turkish Weekly, S. p. Aug. 28th, 2007. Obtido em: http://www.turkishweekly.net/article/222/ Acesso em: 10/10/2013.
BRAUN, R.; GEARHART, J. Who should code your conduct? Labor union and NGO differences in the fight for workers’ rights. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p. 203-221.
CHESNAIS, F. A mundialização do capital. São Paulo: Xamã, 1996.
CIRERA, X.; LAKSHMAN, R. The impact of export processing zones on employment, wages and labour conditions in developing countries. 3ie Systematic Review, n. 10. London: International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), 2014.
COMPA, L. Labor unions, NGOs, and corporate codes of conduct. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p. 241-248.
EVANS, P. Fighting marginalization with transnational networks: counter-hegemonic globalization. Contemporary Sociology, v. 29, n. 1, p. 230-241, 2000.
EWING, K. Trade union rights in the Twenty-first Century. WorkingUSA, v. 5, n. 1, p. 19-42, 2001.
FAIRBROTHER, P.; HAMMER, N. Global unions: past efforts and future prospects. Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations, v. 60, n. 3, p. 405-431, 2005.
FERNANDEZ-STARK, K.; FREDERICK, S.; GEREFFI, G. The apparel global value chain: economic upgrading and workforce development. Durham: Duke University Center on Globalization, Governance and Competitiveness, Nov. 2011. Obtido em: http://www.cggc.duke.edu/pdfs/2011-11-11_CGGC_Apparel-Global-Value-Chain.pdf Acesso em: 10/7/2014.
FERNANDEZ-STARK, K.; BAMBER, P.; GEREFFI, G. Upgrading in global value chains: addressing the skills challenge in developing countries. Durham: Duke University Center on Globalization, Governance and Competitiveness, Sep. 2012. (OECD Background Paper). Obtido em: http://www.cggc.duke.edu/pdfs/2012-09-26_Duke_CGGC_OECD_background_paper_Skills_Upgrading_inGVCs.pdf Acesso em: 22/7/2014.
GALLIN, D. Trade unions and NGOs: a necessary relationship for social development. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, June 2000. Obtido em: http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/%28httpAuxPages%29/5678DFBA8A99EEB780256B5E004C3737/$file/gallin.pdf Acesso em: 08/07/2015.
GEREFFI, G. The organization of buyer-driven global commodity chains: how U.S. retailers shape overseas production networks. In: GEREFFI, G.; KORZENIEWICZ, M. (Eds.). Commodity chains and global capitalism. London: Greenwood Press, 1994, p. 95-122.
GEREFFI, G. Global production systems and Third World development. In: STALLINGS, B. (Ed.). Global change, regional response: the new international context of development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 100-142..
GEREFFI, G. A commodity chains framework for analyzing global industries. Durham: Duke University, Aug. 1999a. Obtido em: http://www.azc.uam.mx/socialesyhumanidades/06/departamentos/relaciones/Pdf.%20De%20curso%20de%20MESO/Gereffi%201999.pdf Acesso em: 10/7/2014.
GEREFFI, G. International trade and industrial upgrading in the apparel commodity chain. Journal of International Economics, v. 48, p. 37-70, 1999b.
GEREFFI, G. The new offshoring of jobs and global development. Geneva: ILO, Dec. 2005.
GEREFFI, G.; GARCIA-JOHNSON, R.; SASSER, E. The NGO-Industrial Complex. Foreign Policy, p. 56-65, July 2001.
GEREFFI, G.; MEMEDOVIC, O. The global apparel value chain: what prospects for upgrading by developing countries. Vienna: UNIDO, 2003. (Sectoral Studies Series).
HANCOCK, P.; MIDDLETON, S.; MOORE, J. Export Processing Zones (EPZs), globalization, feminized labour markets and working conditions: a study of Sri Lankan EPZ workers. Labour and Management in Development, v. 10, S/p, 2009. Obtido em: http://www.nla.gov.au/openpublish/index.php/lmd/article/viewFile/1612/2004 Acesso em: 5/7/2014.
HARVEY, D. The limits to capital. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982.
ILO. Employment and social policy in respect of Export Processing Zones EPZs). Geneva: International Labour Office – Governing Body/Committee on Employment and Social Policy, Mar. 2003. (GB. 286/ESP/3)
KAUFMAN, l.; GONZALEZ, D. Labor standards clash with global reality. The New York Times, Apr. 24th, 2001. Obtido em: http://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/24/world/labor-standards-clash-with-global-reality.html Acesso em: 22/7/2014.
KEARNEY, N.; GEARHART, J. Workplace codes as tools for workers. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p. 249-258.
KLEIN, N. Sem logo: a tirania das marcas em um planeta vendido. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2002.
KOLK, A.; TULDER, R. van; WELTERS, C. International codes of conduct and corporate social responsibility: can transnational corporations regulate themselves? Transnational Corporations, v. 8, n. 1, p.143-180, abr. 1999.
KUSAGO, T.; TZANNATOS, Z. Export Processing Zones: a review in need of update. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank/Social Protection Group/Human Development Network, Jan. 1998.
LEE, J.; GEREFFI, G; BARRIENTOS, S. Global value chains, upgrading and poverty reduction. Manchester: The University of Manchester, Research Programme “Capturing the Gains”, Nov. 2011. (Briefing Note 3). Obtido em: http://www.capturingthegains.org/pdf/ctg_briefing_note_3.pdf Acesso em: 22/7/ 2014.
LIPIETZ, A. Le capital et son espace. 2a ed. Paris: La Découverte, 1983.
LIPIETZ, A. Mirages et miracles. Problèmes de l’industrialisation dans le Tiers Monde. Paris: La Découverte, 1985.
LIPSCHUTZ, R. D. Sweating it out: NGO campaigns and labor union empowerment. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p.
LOCKE, R. M. The promise and perils of globalization: the case of Nike. Cambridge: MIT, 2002. Disponível em: http://www.caseplace.org/pdfs/All-MIT-2003-Promise_and_Perils_Nike.pdf Acesso em: set. 2013.
LYRA, C. Ação política e autonomia: a cooperação não-governamental para o desenvolvimento. São Paulo: Annablume, 2005.
MASSEY, D. Spatial divisions of labour: social structures and the geography of production. London: Macmillan, 1984.
MAYER, F.; GEREFFI, G. Regulation and economic globalization: prospects and limits of private governance. Business and Politics, v. 12, n. 3, 2010. Obtido em: http://www.bepress.com/bap/vol12/iss3/art11 Acesso em: 10/7/2014.
MILBERG, W.; AMENGUAL, M. Economic development and working conditions in Export Processing Zones: a survey of trends. Geneva: International Labour Office, 2008.
NINETY nine per cent perspiration. The Economist, p. 36, June 21th, 1997.
O’BRIEN, R. Workers and world order: the tentative transformation of the international union movement. Review of International Studies, v. 26, p. 533-555, 2000.
OECD. Interconnected economies: benefiting from global value chains. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013. Acesso em: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264189560-en Acesso em: 20/6/2014.
PADRON, M. Non-governmental development organizations: from development AID to development cooperation. World Development, v. 15, Supp., p 69-77, 1987.
PERMAN, S.; DUVILLIER, L.; DAVID, N.; EDEN, J; GRUMIAU, S. Behind the branded names: working conditions and labour rights in Export Processing Zones. Brussels: International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, Dec. 2004.
QUAN, K. Use of global value chains by labor organizers. Competition & Change, v. 12, n. 1, p. 89-104, Mar. 2008.
QUEIROZ, M. do S. A. de. A Cláusula Social na OMC: por uma inter-relação efetiva entre OMC e OIT e o respeito aos direitos fundamentais dos trabalhadores. Scientia Iuris, v. 11, p.165-183, 2007.
SERVANT, J-C. Petites mains du Sud pour firme du Nord. Le Monde Diplomatique, p. 18, Jan. 2006.
SHEPHERD, B.; STONE, S. Global production networks and employment: a developing country perspective. OECD Trade Policy Papers, n. 154, Paris: OECD Publishing, 2013. Obtido em: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5k46j0rjq9s8.pdf?expires=1406055521&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=0B237FF2A1B9131EE37EFF1C6E313BAB Acesso em: 22/7/2014.
SIMPKINS, J. The global workplace: challenging the race to the bottom. In: EADE, D.; LEATHER, A. (Eds.). Development NGOs and labor unions: terms of engagement. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press, 2005, p. 139-151.
SPECIAL Economic Zones: performance, lessons learned, and implications for zone development. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank Group/FIAS, Apr. 2008.
SURVEYING informalised labour conditions in India’s organized garment sector. Development Viewpoint, n. 79, London: University of London, CDPR, July 2014. Obtido em: http://www.soas.ac.uk/cdpr/publications/dv/file93801.pdf Acesso em: 10/7/2014.
THE OPPRESSIVE labour conditions of the working poor in the peripheral segments of Indias’s garment sector. Development Viewpoint, n. 81, London: University of London, CDPR, July 2014. Obtido em: http://www.soas.ac.uk/cdpr/publications/dv/file93820.pdf Acesso em: 10/7/2014.
VIRGILL, N. A. V. Export Processing Zones: tools of development or reform delay?. Fairfax, VA, 2009. Tese (Doutorado em Economia) – George Mason University, School of Public Policy.
